Four types of pressure acting on marine, coastal, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats …

• Exploitation of populations
• Management of land and water
• Pollution
• Development pressures
• Notes
• Figures
• Tables

Figures

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Fig. 10.7. Fragments and larger pieces of dead coral, Lophelia pertusa, from a trawling ground on the Norwegian continental shelf at a depth of about 190 m. The benthic communities have been severely disturbed and are virtually devoid of larger animals. (Photo: CAFF, 2001; reproduced with permission from CAFF, Iceland).

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Fig. 10.8. In Norwegian Finnmark the number of reindeer trebled between 1950 and 1989 resulting in extensive overgrazing of the vegetation. The ground to the left and above the fence had been overgrazed, while that to the right and in the foreground had been protected from grazing. Note the presence of shrubs and the green nature of the herbaceous ground cover. (Source: Hallanaro and Pylvänäinen, 2002[1]; reproduced with permission from Georg Bangjord, Statens Naturoppsyn, Norway).

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Fig. 10.9. Changes in grazing pressure in Finnmarksvidda, northern Norway, between 1973 and 1996. The increase in areas of lichen communities assessed as being overgrazed rises from none in 1973 to approximately two-thirds of the area in 1996. (Source: Hallanaro and Pylvänäinen, 2002[2]; reproduced with permission from The Nordic Council of Ministers, Denmark).

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Fig. 10.10. Whortle-leaved willow (Salix myrsinites) fruiting and growing in a grazing exclosure on limestone grassland that had been heavily overgrazed. After about 20 years without grazing by sheep or deer, this willow forms an understorey with other shrubs to a sparse woodland of birch (Betula pubescens) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) trees. (Photo: M.B. Usher, June 1998[3]).

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