Fig. 1.
The Mesoamerican Center of Domestication. Spondias samples were collected in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.
Fig. 2.
Relationships among trnG–trnS alleles recovered in Spondias trees. (A) Haplotype network depicting mutational relationships among 30 trnG–trnS alleles found in S. purpurea (squares), S. mombin var. mombin (diamonds), S. mombin var. globosa (hexagons), S. radlkoferi (circles), and S. testudinus (stars). The 13 haplotypes found in group 1 were carried exclusively by S. mombin, S. radlkoferi, and S. testudinus trees from Central and South America: none of the ≥100 S. purpurea phenotypes surveyed carried any of the alleles of group 1. All individuals identified as either wild or cultivated S. purpurea carried one of the 17 haplotypes included in group 2. Group 2 alleles AA, R, and AC were recovered in S. mombin var. mombin trees in Central America as well. Allele Z was found in an S. radlkoferi tree. (B) One of two most parsimonious haplotype networks depicting mutational relationships among trnG–trnS alleles recovered in S. purpurea populations (group 2 alleles). The size of the box reflects the number of individuals that carried that haplotype. One gap was mapped on the tree twice, this is indicated with an asterisk.
Fig. 3. trnG–trnS alleles found in wild and cultivated (including backyard trees, living fences, and orchard trees) S. purpurea. Alleles were more numerous and more evenly distributed in wild samples as compared with cultivated samples, of which 71% carried haplotype AC. Twelve alleles were found in wild populations, and nine alleles were recovered in cultivated trees. Eight alleles were detected exclusively in wild populations, and five alleles were found only in cultivated populations. Four alleles were found in both cultivated and wild populations (AC, R, V, and Z).
Fig. 4.
Geographic distribution of trnG–trnS alleles in cultivated and wild S. purpurea populations. (A) Distribution of trnG–trnS alleles in wild populations. Alleles found in wild populations fall in two groups: southern Mexico and Central America (long dashes) and western central Mexico (short dashes). Alleles boxed with long dashes (AA, AB, R, X, V, Y, and Z) were found in wild populations from southern Mexico to Panama. Alleles boxed with the short dashes (T, O, P, AC, and AF) were found in wild populations in western central Mexico. Allele AC (boxed with small dots on the network) was found in wild populations throughout Mesoamerica as well. Alleles boxed in gray were not recovered in any wild populations. (B) Distribution of trnG–trnS alleles in cultivated populations. Alleles found in wild populations from southern Mexico to Panama (boxed in long dashes) were recovered in cultivated populations in the same region. Allele AC, which was most closely related to alleles found exclusively in wild populations of western central Mexico, was distributed in cultivated populations throughout Mesoamerica. Alleles boxed in gray were not recovered in any cultivated populations. (C) Nested clade analysis of trnG–trnS alleles found in S. purpurea trees. Individual alleles (0-step clades) were grouped into 1-step, 2-step, and 3-step clades. A nested contingency analysis rejected the null hypothesis (no association between genealogy and geographic locality) for four clades: 1-6, 2-3, 3-1, and 3-2.
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